Chapter 2 – The King and the State

Chapter 2 – The King and the State

 

1. Emergence of New Dynasties between 7th to 12th Centuries

• After the 7th  century, several new dynasties emerged in the Indian subcontinent.
• Samantas : Large landlords or warrior chiefs often worked under the existing kings.
  • The king used to provide them with gifts and military aid.
  • When the feudatories got enough power and wealth, they declared themselves  to be  maha-samanta or   maha-mandaleshwara (a great feudatory or great lord of the mandala) and became independent of their lord.
  • Example: The Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, who were initially under the Chalukyas of the Carnatic. In the middle of the 8th  century, a Rashtrakuta chief named Dantidurga overthrew his Chalukya lord and performed a ritual called   Hiranya-garbha (literally, ‘golden womb’).  It was believed that even if they were not Kshatriyas by birth, they would  be ‘reborn’  as Kshatriyas.

 

2. Administration in the Kingdoms

• The new kings assumed large titles, such as Maharajadhiraja  (King of Kings), Tribhuvana-Chakravartin (Lord of the Three Worlds) etc.
• They shared their power with the feudatories as well as with the peasants, merchants and Brahmins.
•  Collection of Revenue:
  • The king collected  taxes or  rent  from farmers, cattle herders, artisans.
  • These resources were used for the construction of the king’s establishments, temples and forts.
  • Officers were appointed for revenue collection, often coming from influential families.

 

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

•  Prashastis:
  • These were works that  were written by poets and scholars in praise of the rulers.
  • They portrayed the ruler as a warrior, victor or a great man.
  • Although these were not entirely true, they tell us how the rulers wanted themselves to look.
•  Land Grants:
  • The king often rewarded the Brahmins with land grants, which  were recorded on  copper plates.
  • These copperplates were given to those who got land.
• Example: A copperplate issued by the Chola ruler in the 9th century tells us what rights the land acquirer got.

 

4. Wealth for War

• The rulers often fought with each other for control over territories.
• These wars were often for control over money and trade routes.
•  Struggle for Kannauj:
  • Kannauj was an important city in the Ganges valley.
  •  The  Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought each other for control of Kannauj for centuries.
  • Historians have called it  the “Tripartite Struggle.”
•  Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030 AD):
  • from Ghazni, Afghanistan.
  • He raided the Indian subcontinent almost every year.
  • His main aim was to loot wealth, especially of rich temples.
  • He  raided the Somnath temple in Gujarat.
  • He used the looted money to build a grand capital at Ghazni.

 

5. The Chola Empire

• Rise :
  • The Chola dynasty came to power in the Kaveri delta in South India.
  • In the middle of the 9th  century, Vijayalaya belonging to a small chieftain family called  Muttaraiyar conquered the Kaveri delta and built the town of  Tanjavur and the temple of Nishumbhasudini Devi.
  • The successors of Vijayalaya expanded the empire by conquering the surrounding territories.
• Rajaraja I (985-1014 AD):
  • He is considered to be the most powerful ruler among the Cholas.
  • He extended control over most of the territories.
  • He reorganized the administration of the empire.
• Rajendra I :
  • Son of Rajaraja I.
  • He raided the Ganges Valley, Sri Lanka and the countries of South-East Asia.

 

6. Chola Architecture and Sculpture

•  Grand Temples:
  • The Chola rulers built grand temples, most notably  the Rajarajeshwara Temple at Tanjore and  the Gangaikondacholapuram Temple.
  • These temples were not only places of worship but also centres of economic, social and cultural life.
  • These were also centres of craft production.
• Bronze Sculptures:
  • The Chola bronze statues, especially the Nataraja statues,  are considered to be  among the finest in the world.
  • Most of the statues were of gods and goddesses, but some were also of devotees.

 

7. Agriculture and Irrigation

• During the reign of the Cholas, there was great development in agriculture.
• Importance of Kaveri River: The branches of the Kaveri river used to accumulate fertile soil due to frequent floods.
• Irrigation System :
  • Irrigation was developed on a large scale through canals, wells and ponds.
  • This led to an increase in the cultivation of crops like rice.

 

8. Administration of the Empire

• UR : Farmers’ settlements.
• Nadu : A group of many urs.
  • Nadu was governed by village councils and had important administrative functions such as dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
•  Vellala Caste: The wealthy peasants (Vellalas) exercised significant control in the actions of the Chola government.
• Rise of Brahmins: The Chola kings made massive land grants to the Brahmins, which led to the establishment of a number of Brahmin settlements (Brahmadeyas).
•  Merchants’ Associations (Nagarams):  The merchants’ associations were called nagarams, who also participated in administrative functions.